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Guerra, López y Meza / J. Comput. Electron. Sci.: Theory Appl., vol. 4 no. 2, pp. 49-65, July - December, 2023

Autonomous vehicles as a new capability and support of naval operations

Vehículos autónomos como nueva capacidad y soporte de las operaciones navales

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17981/cesta.04.02.2023.04

Artículo de investigación científica. Fecha de recepción: 01/01/2022. Fecha de aceptación: 31/12/2023.

Gustavo A. Guerra La Rotta E:\Users\aromero17\Downloads\orcid_16x16.png

Armada Nacional. Escuela Naval de Cadetes Almirante Padilla. Cartagena (Colombia)

gustavo.guerra@armada.mil.co

Katheryn Leonor López Urrea E:\Users\aromero17\Downloads\orcid_16x16.png

Armada Nacional. Escuela Naval de Cadetes Almirante Padilla. Cartagena (Colombia)

lopezkatheryn22@gmail.com

Juan Camilo Meza Acevedo E:\Users\aromero17\Downloads\orcid_16x16.png

Armada Nacional. Escuela Naval de Cadetes Almirante Padilla. Cartagena (Colombia)

camilomeza249@gmail.com

.

For cite:

G. Guerra, K. López y J. Meza, “Autonomous vehicles as a new capability and support of naval operations”, J. Comput. Electron. Sci.: Theory Appl., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. –65, 2023. https://doi.org/10.17981/cesta.04.02.2023.04

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Abstract

Introduction: The present research focuses on evaluating the impact of the integration of Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) on the operational capabilities of the Colombian National Navy.

Objective: This study examines the role of AVs in various functions of the navy, such as military, diplomatic, and policing, and analyzes their potential to optimize critical operations, including surveillance, reconnaissance, naval power projection, and logistical support. A multidisciplinary approach addresses this objective, combining resources from autonomous naval operations, maritime strategy, and autonomous vehicle technology.

Method: The methodology is based on a comprehensive literature review and a methodological framework to identify roles, missions, and capabilities necessary to integrate AVs in naval operational scenarios effectively. The implementation process is analyzed in detail, from needs assessment to personnel training and infrastructure planning.

Results: The research reveals the immense potential of AVs to significantly enhance efficiency, flexibility, and safety in naval operations. However, it also identifies the technical and operational challenges that need to be overcome, such as limitations in perception and communication, resistance to adverse maritime conditions, and cybersecurity concerns. Additionally, the costs associated with acquiring, operating, and maintaining this technology are highlighted.

Conclusions: While AVs offer clear benefits and transformative potential in naval operations, their successful implementation necessitates substantial investment in technology and training. A thorough assessment of the costs, benefits, and risks involved is crucial. The article underscores the importance of continued research and testing to integrate AVs safely and effectively into the naval context, considering the constant evolution of technological capabilities.

Keywords: Research strategy; state security; military technology; naval engineering

Resumen

Introducción: La investigación se centra en evaluar el impacto de la integración de Vehículos Autónomos (VA) en las capacidades operativas de la Armada Nacional de Colombia, abordando su papel en funciones militares, diplomáticas y policiales, así como su potencial para mejorar operaciones clave como vigilancia, reconocimiento, proyección del poder naval y soporte logístico. Emplea un enfoque multidisciplinario que combina recursos de operaciones navales autónomas, estrategia marítima y tecnología de VA.

Método: La metodología incluye una revisión exhaustiva de literatura y un marco metodológico para identificar roles, misiones y capacidades necesarias. Se analiza el proceso de implementación, desde la evaluación de necesidades hasta la capacitación del personal y la planificación de infraestructura.

Resultados: Sugieren mejoras significativas en eficiencia, flexibilidad y seguridad en las operaciones navales con la integración de VA, aunque se identifican desafíos técnicos y operativos como limitaciones en percepción y comunicación, resistencia ante condiciones marítimas adversas y preocupaciones sobre seguridad cibernética, además de costos asociados con adquisición, operación y mantenimiento.

Conclusiones: Los VA ofrecen beneficios claros pero su implementación exitosa requiere inversión considerable en tecnología y capacitación, así como una evaluación minuciosa de costos, beneficios y riesgos. Se destaca la importancia de continuar investigando y probando para integrar de manera segura y efectiva los VA, considerando la evolución tecnológica y la necesidad de planificación y adaptación organizacional para enfrentar los desafíos que plantea esta nueva capacidad.

Palabras clave: Estrategia en la investigación; seguridad del Estado; tecnología militar; ingeniería naval

I. Introduction

Bill Gates once noted, “We always overestimate the change that will occur in the next two years and underestimate the change that will occur in the next ten.” This observation is particularly pertinent to the significant transformations expected in the coming decades with the introduction of autonomous vehicles, poised to impact society profoundly. Although some experts anticipated that autonomous cars would already be a common sight on our streets, numerous accidents and safety concerns have slowed their widespread adoption. Nevertheless, the eventual integration of this technology appears inevitable. The article details various levels of vehicle autonomy and addresses solutions to safety issues. It also explores how autonomous vehicles will revolutionize the world in the next few decades, noting that their application in various fields has attracted considerable interest [1].

Introducing this new capability within the Colombian National Navy could significantly enhance institutional capabilities and address emerging threats and challenges in the naval domain. Science, technology, and innovation are crucial in developing the necessary framework for this advancement, promoting collaboration among the population, academia, industry, and government. The article underscores the importance of autonomous vehicles in boosting the Colombian Navy’s institutional capabilities and highlights the need to encourage their development through cooperative efforts among various stakeholders.

As an essential armed forces branch, the Navy has numerous responsibilities, including protecting territorial sovereignty, ensuring maritime security, and combating illegal drug and arms trafficking. In this context, autonomous vehicles could be key in supporting these missions. The following section will detail the primary roles of the National Navy to align them with its capabilities, thereby illustrating the importance of initiating and developing strategies for deploying autonomous vehicles. This effort aims to enhance institutional capabilities through science, technology, and innovation by integrating contributions from the public, academia, industries, and government [2], [3].

II. Related Works

A. Roles and responsibilities of the navy

Based on their roles and responsibilities, the Armed Forces are tasked with ensuring strategic capabilities supported by institutional human talent, including professional personnel, rigorous training, transparency, and integration with societies. Additionally, they must maintain structural capabilities inherent to military entities, such as command and control, effectiveness, intelligence, gradualism, security, high flexibility, surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities, mobility, interoperability, projection, permanence, and logistics [4].

The primary role of the Navy and Marine Corps is to deliver credible and sustained combat power from the sea, whenever and wherever it is needed [5], [6]. This includes projecting power ashore and providing defense for forces on land near shorelines and in littoral areas, where naval operations are expected to counter threats such as mines, submarines, small boat fleets, and anti-ship cruise missiles [7]. Marine expeditionary operations may face challenges from coastal batteries, land forces, and mines in the surf zone, on the beach, and inland [2]. Additionally, Marine operations in riverine territories may encounter complex environments that exacerbate combat challenges and increase risks [8]. Should a severe military competitor arise, the possibility of a high-seas naval conflict becomes a reality, with opposing naval forces engaging in battle [6]. The Navy’s ultimate vision should encapsulate the concepts of naval offense, naval protection or shield, and positioning [9].

These concepts should be represented as a family of afloat scenarios, linking networked platforms among the Expeditionary Offensive Group (GAE), the Strategic Surface Platform (PES), the Maritime Positioning Force (FPM), and the Logistics Combat Force (FCL) [10]. Efforts should be made to ensure rapid maritime transport and literacy in technologies. This approach will enable Marine Corps forces to initiate sustainable operations, facilitate the flow of follow-on forces to the theater via sea bases, and expedite the reconstitution and redeployment of Marine forces for other missions [2]. These scenarios must be integrated through “an architectural framework” for naval warfare in the information age, combining sailors, sensors, command and control, platforms, and weapons into a networked, distributed fighting force [7], with “dynamic, multi-route, survivable networks” among the capabilities provided [11]. The incorporation of autonomous vehicles into these scenarios, as detailed in Table 1, significantly enhances the applicability of such technologies in the marine industry, offering a strategic advantage in operational efficiency and capability augmentation across these vital naval segments.

Table 1.
Applicability of autonomous vehicles in the marine industry.

No

Mission & Task

Autonomous Vehicle Types

UAV

USV

UUV

UGV

1

To provide ground surveillance and targeting

X

a

For near shore fire support

X

b

To support the dispatch-to-target maneuver

X

X

X

X

c

For deep strike

X

2

For suppression of enemy air defenses

X

a

For over-the-hill lookout

X

X

b

For urban warfare

X

X

3

To counter mines at sea

X

X

X

4

To counter mines near the beach

X

X

5

To counter land mines

X

X

6

To counter submarines

X

X

X

7

Counterattack of surface vessels

X

X

8

Countering anti-ship cruise missiles

X

X

9

Detecting chemical, biological, radiological attacks

X

X

X

10

Provide maritime surveillance

X

11

Environmental monitoring

X

X

X

X
Note: UAV, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle; USV, Unmanned Surface Vehicle; UUV, Unmanned Underwater Vehicle; UGV, Unmanned Ground Vehicle.
Source: [2].

B. Capacity building: needs and potential applications of autonomous vehicles

The integration of autonomous vehicles into naval operations significantly enhances key capabilities. These vehicles enhance surveillance and reconnaissance by autonomously performing tasks, thus reducing the workload on human personnel and increasing efficiency in strategic intelligence gathering [12]. They also bolster naval power projection by conducting maritime convoy patrol and escort missions in coastal areas [13]. Their capability to remain at sea without refueling or crew rest is crucial for sustaining continuous and extended naval operations [13]. Furthermore, these vehicles streamline naval logistics by efficiently transporting and delivering cargo, reducing personnel workload, and enhancing supply distribution [3], [13], [14]. For their successful integration, substantial investment in research and development and personnel training is necessary [13]. Autonomous vehicles, looking ahead, are poised for diverse missions, ranging from surveillance to seafloor exploration, offering both military and scientific benefits [15], [16].

The role of autonomous vehicles in naval offense is to project precise and enduring offensive power from the sea. This includes leveraging autonomous naval sensors integrated into a network for persistent intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, thereby gaining insights into adversary capabilities and vulnerabilities [7]. These ISR assets are integral to effectively targeting mobile and time-sensitive targets, aiming to neutralize any potential enemy force. Naval power projection is achieved through deploying missiles from surface ships and mobilizing expeditionary marine forces from amphibious ships [17].

Autonomous vehicles are indispensable for performing various functions, from surveillance to precision weapons delivery, to enhance strike capabilities [18]. The acceleration of these vehicles’ development and seamless integration into naval operations can be greatly facilitated by advanced simulation and modeling techniques [2]. These vehicles, capable of being deployed from terrestrial and maritime platforms, are pivotal for conducting comprehensive surveillance and accurately identifying targets [19]. In essence, integrating autonomous vehicles into naval offenses presents opportunities to augment the efficacy and precision of military operations, albeit contingent on substantial technological advancements and experimental endeavors to realize their full potential.

The doctrine of naval protection or defense emphasizes the imperative of safeguarding national interests by countering sea threats, encompassing various challenges in littoral and open sea scenarios. Historically, the Navy has been instrumental in ensuring the security of sea lines of communication and executing strategic deterrence, notably through submarine patrols [20], [21]. The Navy is poised to broaden its defensive strategies to include measures against ballistic missiles, land-based air defenses, and detecting hostile vessels in maritime domains [22]. The Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) concept has been developed to fortify littoral areas and support naval operations in response to these evolving threats. The LCS framework anticipates the deployment of diverse Autonomous Vehicles —encompassing surface, underwater, and terrestrial platforms— to fulfill mission-specific requirements [23].

A paramount challenge lies in detecting and neutralizing sea mines, submarines, and small boat fleets, which represent significant hazards to naval forces operating in littoral zones. Autonomous vehicles are critical in these contexts, offering enhanced reconnaissance and surveillance capabilities across coastal territories and navigable channels [12]. These platforms are also equipped to deploy sonar arrays and other detection tools for identifying submarines and sea mines. Moreover, the threat posed by surface ships and missile strikes from aircraft necessitates the deployment of autonomous vehicles for early threat recognition and initiating defensive counteractions, including weapon systems and guidance sensors [24]. Nonetheless, the implementation of these technologies is confronted by obstacles related to infrastructure, threat assessment, and cybersecurity concerns [2]. n summary, autonomous vehicles are central to the architecture of naval defense, offering indispensable capabilities for threat identification, surveillance, and counteraction in littoral and maritime settings. However, their effective integration demands comprehensive solutions to technical and operational challenges to assure their reliability and security in naval warfare.

C. Autonomous vehicles from the conception of naval positions and land warfare

In the face of growing threats from enemy access to Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and the diminishing availability of strategically enhanced bases and ports, it becomes crucial to mitigate the vulnerability of naval forces. This necessitates the broader deployment of mobile, interconnected sea bases designed to support the dynamic and flexible power projection, particularly for Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB)-sized forces targeting deep operational areas. This strategic pivot is militarily prudent and holds significant political importance [5]. The evolving landscape of ground combat presents the Marine Corps with unprecedented challenges, necessitating a suite of capabilities that autonomous vehicles are uniquely positioned to fulfill in the future. Currently, these vehicles are addressing such needs in a basic form, constrained by limitations in range, endurance, and substantial logistical demands [24]. A notable application includes the deployment of autonomous drones for engaging enemy positions without endangering soldier lives, a method that circumvents the traditional risks associated with direct combat.

However, integrating autonomous vehicles into ground warfare introduces complex ethical and legal considerations. The absence of direct human oversight raises pertinent questions regarding accountability and decision-making processes. Moreover, deploying these technologies has potential long-term ramifications for international security and political equilibrium. Autonomous vehicles promise a paradigm shift in ground military operations, enhancing soldier safety and operational efficacy by enabling risk-free reconnaissance and engagement strategies [3]. These vehicles, capable of navigating predefined routes autonomously and equipped with advanced sensors, offer a means to conduct thorough reconnaissance without exposing soldiers to harm. They are essential in gathering and relaying critical intelligence on enemy positions to frontline units.

Autonomous vehicles stand to revolutionize naval and land warfare, improving operational safety, navigation efficiency, and the capability for extended surveillance and patrol missions. Nevertheless, realizing this potential requires overcoming significant hurdles, including enhancing object perception and detection capabilities in marine environments, securing systems against jamming and sabotage, and addressing maintenance challenges. The extent of these benefits and the challenges faced in implementing autonomous vehicles in warfare contexts are comprehensively outlined in Table 2, underscoring their transformative potential and the multi-faceted approach required to integrate them successfully into military operations.

Table 2.
Applicability of autonomous vehicles in warfare.

Application

Examples of autonomous vehicles

Recognition

Drones, ground vehicles with cameras and sensors, exploration robots.

Attack

Drones with missiles, ground vehicles with armament, explosive robots.

Logistics

Transport drones, autonomous cargo vehicles.

Surveillance and security

Surveillance drones, autonomous patrol vehicles.

Medical evacuation

Medical evacuation drones, autonomous ambulance vehicles.
Source: Autonomous vehicles in support of naval operations.

C. Differences between autonomous vehicles and remotely operated vehicles

Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) and Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) represent evolving technologies with diverse applications across multiple fields. Both AVs and ROVs have revolutionized task execution in numerous industries. They exhibit distinct differences despite their ability to operate without onboard human presence. Autonomous vehicles operate independently, executing pre-programmed tasks without human intervention. In contrast, ROVs are controlled by human operators from a remote location. These technologies are pivotal in military operations for surveillance, reconnaissance, and logistical support, significantly reducing the risk to soldier’s lives. The ongoing development of these technologies promises enhanced efficiency and effectiveness across various sectors and missions. The choice between AVs or ROVs hinges on the specific requirements of the task and the operational environment. The capabilities and limitations of Autonomous Vehicles (AVs), as detailed in Table 3, and the potential and limitations of Virtual Reality Training (VRT), as outlined in Table 4, further highlight their strategic importance in ensuring operational safety and effectiveness without compromising soldier safety.

Table 3.
Potential and limitations of VA.

Potential

Limitations

Surveillance and reconnaissance: Autonomous vehicles can conduct patrols in maritime and coastal areas, detecting and monitoring suspicious activities.

Limitations in sensing and detection: As with land-based autonomous vehicles, naval autonomous vehicles may have difficulty detecting objects or conditions in the maritime environment, such as fishing rafts, drifting containers, or small boats.

Search and rescue operations: Autonomous vehicles can search for and rescue people in distress in maritime areas.

Vulnerabilities to interference and sabotage: Communication and control systems used to operate naval autonomous vehicles may be vulnerable to interference and sabotage, which adversaries can use to interfere with operations or even take control of the vehicle.

Mine and demining operations: Autonomous vehicles can conduct mine and demining operations in coastal waters and harbors.

Maintenance requirements may have greater complexity than conventional vehicles, requiring more significant maintenance and repair needs.

Special operations support: Autonomous vehicles can transport personnel and equipment safely and efficiently.

Limitations in cargo capacity and range: They tend to have a more limited cargo capacity than conventional vessels and may have limited range due to restrictions on the size of batteries and other components.

Environmental monitoring: Autonomous vehicles can monitor water quality and the marine environment.

Regulatory and safety issues: As with land-based autonomous vehicles, regulation and safety are significant concerns for naval autonomous vehicles. The lack of a clear regulatory framework and uncertainty about liability in the event of accidents or technical failures may delay the adoption of naval autonomous vehicles.
Source: The promise and limitations of autonomous vehicles.
Table 4.
Potential and limitations of VRT.

Potential

Limitations

Versatility: VRTs can be used in various applications, from exploration and mapping to agriculture and security.

Range limitations: VRTs have limited range due to battery life and remote-control signal limitations.

Safety: VRTs can be used for hazardous tasks or in hard-to-reach areas, reducing the risk to people.

Payload limitations: VRTs have limited payload carrying capacity, which can be problematic in applications requiring large payloads.

Efficiency: VRTs can perform tasks faster and more efficiently than humans, saving time and money.

Weather sensitivity: VRTs can be sensitive to weather conditions, such as wind and rain, affecting their ability to perform tasks.

Accuracy: VRTs can be programmed to perform tasks with incredible accuracy, which can be important in applications such as agriculture and surveying.

Legal requirements: In many countries, VRTs are subject to regulations and legal requirements that may limit their use.

Low cost: In many cases, VRTs can be less expensive than traditional systems, especially when maintenance costs and equipment lifetimes are considered.

Technical failures: VRTs can suffer from technical failures, which can be dangerous in applications requiring high accuracy and safety.
Source: Remote-Controlled Vehicles: Advantages and Limitations.

In summary, Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) hold the potential to enhance efficiency across various sectors, notably in naval and military operations. These robotic systems are designed to execute specific tasks autonomously, enabling their application in diverse scenarios, particularly those posing risks to human operators. ROVs are controlled from ground or onboard stations, allowing for remote operation, whereas AVs autonomously execute predefined tasks without human intervention. This distinction underscores their adaptability and utility in situations where human safety or accessibility is a concern.

1) Costs

The potential to significantly reduce the costs of conducting various missions is promising, as autonomous vehicles do not require accommodations for space, life support, and specialized protection against human-related threats. These vehicles can often be designed much lighter and smaller than their manned counterparts. Historically, the cost of a vehicle has been roughly proportional to its mass—approximately $3 300 per kilogram ($1 500 per pound) for a typical military airframe for human-crewed vehicles. Consequently, reductions in mass can lead to substantial savings in acquisition costs, which often translates into corresponding savings in the support required for the vehicle [2]. Cost reduction is such a critical factor that it merits exploring the potential for the miniaturization of autonomous vehicles. The diverse types of naval autonomous vehicles and their associated costs, as outlined in Table 5, provide a comprehensive overview of the economic benefits and considerations in deploying these technologies for naval applications.

Table 5.
Naval autonomous vehicle types and costs.

Naval autonomous vehicle

Approximate cost (USD)

USV Class Protector

$10 000 000

USV Class Sea Hunter

$20 000 000

UUV Bluefin-21

$1 000 000

UUV Remus 100

$100 000

ROV Saab Seaeye Falcon

$300 000

ROV Deep ocean

$1 000 000
Source: The Cost of Autonomy: An Analysis of the Costs and Benefits of Autonomous Maritime Systems.

For instance, with adequate miniaturization and cost reduction, deploying expendable, autonomous vehicles could render feasible specific missions that would otherwise be prohibitively expensive, particularly in enhancing combat logistics. Such trade-offs warrant careful consideration as the technology for autonomous vehicles progresses [2], [12], [24]. Although current experiences with autonomous vehicles may not yet demonstrate cost savings in the computer industry, there is strong reason to believe that as AV technologies mature and production scales up, their costs align with the well-established trends observed in human-crewed vehicles. The range of Remotely Operated Vehicle types and their associated costs, as detailed in Table 6, further illuminates the economic dynamics at play, underscoring the potential for significant cost efficiencies as the technology advances and becomes more widely adopted in various operational contexts.

Table 6.
Remotely Operated Vehicle types and costs.

Remotely Operated Vehicle

Approximate cost (USD)

DJI Mavic 2 Pro

$1 599 - $1 729

DJI Matrice 600 Pro

$4 999 - $5 699

DJI Matrice 200 V2

$13 000 - $15 000

SenseFly eBee X

$16 000 - $20 000

Lockheed Martin Indago

$30 000 - $40 000

DJI Matrice 300 RTK

$32 000 - $37 000
Source: The Costs of Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems.

It is crucial to recognize that the costs provided are approximate and can vary based on each autonomous marine vehicle’s specific requirements and characteristics. Furthermore, these costs could escalate when considering including maintenance, operation, and repair expenses over the vehicle’s lifespan. The costs of autonomous land, naval, and Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPVs) can differ markedly, influenced by factors such as the vehicle type, size, capacity, technical specifications, and the need for additional equipment. Key factors impacting the costs of autonomous land and naval vehicles include:

  1. Technology and Development: The technology utilized in the development plays a significant role in determining cost. Vehicles with more advanced and complex technologies, like drones and robots, tend to be pricier than their simpler counterparts.
  2. Additional Equipment and Features: Incorporating extra equipment and features, such as sensors, cameras, communication systems, weaponry, and advanced navigation systems, can substantially elevate the cost.
  3. Payload Capacity and Capability: he vehicle’s payload capacity and capabilities, including speed and travel distance, influence the cost. Larger vehicles with higher payload capacities are generally more costly than smaller ones.
  4. Maintenance and Repair: Maintenance and repair can account for a significant portion of the overall cost over the vehicle’s lifetime.

Depending on the above factors, costs may range from a few thousand dollars to several hundred thousand dollars. The total costs might also encompass expenses related to personnel training, maintenance, operation, and other indirect costs.

2) On-board computing

As commercial technologies progress, the computational capabilities onboard Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) are expected to evolve in line with Moore’s Law [25]. This growth encompasses not only the intelligence and guidance systems but also the surveillance and reconnaissance sensors, such as imaging sensors, which are likely to continue advancing rapidly due to demand in other markets [5]. Nonetheless, these systems are bound by theoretical limits that may impede future enhancements in specific domains. For instance, many current image sensors can capture nearly all the light that enters the camera’s aperture, with sensor noise approaching the minimum thresholds dictated by physical principles [12]. Consequently, while light sensitivity may not see further increases, advancements in image sensor technologies are expected to primarily manifest through expansions in the overall size of the image array. This development would enable the production of panoramic images that maintain the intricate details necessary for advanced image interpretation [24].

The necessity for specific optical components prevents their miniaturization in the realm of advanced sensors for intelligence, surveillance, recognition, and targeting. For example, a camera with a 10 cm diameter aperture is required to identify faces with a resolution of plus or minus 1 cm from a distance of 1 km, a requirement stemming from the wave nature of light, which precludes reduction in size through technological advancements [2]. As a result, smaller AVs equipped with diminutive sensors must approach their targets closely to gather quality data, while larger AVs can maintain a significant distance and achieve similar objectives. The direct correlation between the size of the camera aperture and the lens’s range (for identical image resolution) implies that recognizing faces from a distance of 10 km would necessitate a 1 m aperture [24]. Thus, for an autonomous high-altitude aerial reconnaissance vehicle to acquire high-quality images of the ground or sea surface, it must be of considerable size to house a camera with the requisite dimensions [12]. This principle also extends to acoustic sensors in autonomous underwater vehicles, concluding that longer-range sensors are incompatible with smaller vehicles [24]. However, the limitations imposed by wave effects on acoustic sensors can be mitigated through synthetic aperture sonar, which combines signals from a moving sensor to emulate the resolution of a stationary one. Onboard computing is pivotal for the control and operational system of the vehicle. This technology empowers the vehicle to process and analyze data from sensors, cameras, and other devices, facilitating autonomous navigational decisions and task execution. The functionalities enabled by onboard computing encompass the following:

Integrating shipboard computing technology is crucial for enhancing the autonomous operational capabilities and decision-making processes in challenging maritime environments. This advanced computing facilitates improvements in efficiency and safety during naval operations, empowering military forces to execute their missions with heightened precision and efficacy [26].

3) Endurance

Characteristically, small vehicles tend to have shorter ranges and rest periods, whereas larger vehicles can achieve much longer distances and rest times [2]. The laws of physics dictate that air and submarine vehicles exhibit approximately the same drag-to-mass ratio, a factor that becomes evident in actual vehicle data. Given that a vehicle of a specific size can only carry a limited amount of fuel, its ability to counteract natural winds or ocean currents is inherently limited [12]. Most of today’s operational Autonomous Air and Underwater Vehicles boast endurance capabilities of over 24 hours and have a gross weight of at least 1 ton. In contrast, smaller and lighter hand-launched air or submarine vehicles may only sustain a few hours of operation, a limitation primarily governed by fundamental physics and challenging to overcome with advanced technology.

The endurance to sustain prolonged operations without maintenance or repair is crucial in autonomous vehicles, especially in demanding environments such as space exploration, mining, or agriculture, where they must withstand extreme temperatures, dust, humidity, and rugged terrain. Additionally, these vehicles must endure the shocks and vibrations encountered during operation, a consideration significant in cargo transportation applications [3], [13]. For remotely operated vehicles, endurance pertains to withstanding operational stresses and vibrations and extends to battery life. These vehicles are frequently employed in military, defense, research, and exploration contexts, requiring them to function in extreme weather conditions, including high winds and temperatures, and under high-stress and combat scenarios.

Endurance is a key consideration in designing and developing autonomous and remotely piloted vehicles. They must endure heavy usage, adverse environmental conditions, and significant shock and vibration without mechanical failure, ensuring vehicle safety and those in its vicinity. For naval autonomous vehicles, endurance is paramount for their design and operation, as they must resist extreme environmental conditions and perform effectively in deep and turbulent waters [27]. Structurally, these vehicles must withstand high pressures and temperatures, resist corrosion and wear from salt water, and endure impacts from maritime debris. Operationally, they must navigate efficiently in challenging maritime conditions, possibly requiring advanced stabilization systems and sensors to monitor wind and current speeds and directions. Moreover, naval autonomous vehicles must be resilient against electromagnetic interference and disturbances from other vessels and electronic equipment in the maritime environment. The List of Characteristics to develop additional technologies for vehicle operation, as outlined in Table 7, encompasses these essential features and more, providing a comprehensive framework for enhancing the endurance and operational capabilities of these advanced vehicles.

Table 7.
List of Characteristics to develop additional technologies for vehicle operation.

Technology

Recomendations

Logistical requirements for autonomous vehicles in the ESP.

While autonomous vehicles of all types are likely to be essential contributors to the overall capabilities of littoral ships, there is little or no planning for maintenance and checkout space, launch and recovery equipment installation, and logistics support. Requirements for these vehicles in the current LCS development. This planning needs to be done.

Tracking of commercial developments

Commercial sector investment in technologies applicable to Autonomous Underwater Vehicle missions dwarfs the investment that the MoD can make. Therefore, the Navy must stay abreast of commercial developments and take full advantage of them to the extent that they are relevant to the Navy’s development of Autonomous Undersea Vehicles.

Environmental sensing

The Navy has a long and distinguished history of developing and testing methods to monitor the marine environment. It is important for the future development of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles that this technology development continues and strengthens in synergistic areas with Autonomous Underwater Vehicle developments.

Training

The complexity of complete Autonomous Underwater Vehicle systems, including launch and recovery subsystems, requires well-planned and executed operations and maintenance training for those responsible for these systems.
Source: [2].

Endurance is a pivotal aspect of their operational effectiveness in the maritime environment. Autonomous vehicles must endure extreme environmental conditions and sustain prolonged operations without maintenance or repair. They must efficiently navigate through deep and turbulent waters while also being resilient to electromagnetic interference and disruptions caused by other vessels and electronic devices in the maritime setting. With a focus on endurance, naval autonomous vehicles emerge as indispensable assets for a broad spectrum of naval and maritime security operations [28], [29]. In the context of remotely operated vehicles, endurance encompasses the vehicle’s resilience to impacts and vibrations encountered during operation, alongside the longevity of its battery life. These vehicles are predominantly deployed in military, defense, research, and exploration. They are engineered to function in severe weather conditions, including high winds and extreme temperatures, and to withstand high-stress and combat scenarios. In conclusion, endurance is a crucial consideration in designing and developing autonomous and remotely operated vehicles. These vehicles must endure intensive usage, challenging environmental conditions, and significant shocks and vibrations without succumbing to mechanical failures that could compromise the safety of the vehicle and those within its vicinity.

4) Types of vehicles

Three primary categories of vehicles are differentiated by size, each offering unique capabilities and advantages. The first category includes tiny vehicles, which must approach targets closely to fulfill their missions due to their limited resolution and sensor endurance. Their compact size and minimal mass make them cost-effective, potentially hand-launched, or even disposable [2], [12]. Although these vehicles have a limited operational duration of a few hours, they can prolong their missions by landing on nearby terrain. Their small and inconspicuous nature makes them less susceptible to detection, even when operating close to targets. The second category encompasses larger Autonomous Vehicles, with a dry mass (excluding fuel) ranging from approximately 100 kg to a few tons. These vehicles, depending on their payload, can operate for up to a day or two without needing rest and are equipped with sensors capable of gathering superior reconnaissance data without approaching the target closely [24]. Despite their moderate size, their ability to remain in passive mode at a safe distance from targets makes them hard to detect, offering a strategic advantage. These vehicles also present a more cost-effective and efficient alternative to manned vehicles for similar missions, capable of operating beyond the endurance limits of a human pilot.

Autonomous and remotely piloted ground vehicles serve diverse functions, from cargo transportation and hazardous terrain exploration to military operations. With ongoing technological advancements, future developments are anticipated to introduce new vehicle types capable of performing an even broader spectrum of tasks.

D. Science, technology, and innovation in response to the development of autonomous vehicles

All proposals presented in this document hinge on the institution’s fortification of science, technology, and innovation processes. It is imperative to allocate the necessary resources for training and technological advancements to unlock these yet-to-be-utilized capabilities [30], [31]. From this viewpoint, common challenges across all Military Forces emerge, heralding new research opportunities for scholars in the domain. The journey should commence with the advancement of science and culminate in establishing innovation policies, an endeavor that could be termed “knowledge policy.” This initiative ought to be cultivated across all levels within the Navy.

The innovation and skill development process taps into diverse knowledge sources and embodies a learning journey [32]. This underscores the urgency for fresh analytical endeavors and a reassessment of policy organization and execution across various facets. Through these policies on science, technology, and innovation, it is crucial to align the roles and responsibilities of the institution with the National Navy’s capabilities, mainly aiming to amplify the development of autonomous vehicles.

In 1961, a group of OECD experts, including Freeman, Svennilsson, and others, introduced a framework for crafting science policies integrated with economic strategies and significantly influencing economic growth. Such guidelines should inform policy formulation within the institution [33]. This effort should be augmented by rigorous research to devise sophisticated methods for tracking innovation system trends and assessing the impact of STI policies on these systems. Adopting more refined innovation indicators would provide valuable insights for a comprehensive Military Forces perspective that harmoniously incorporates society, industry, academia, and the Colombian Navy as a state representative. The technological characteristics of the vehicles that need to be developed, as listed in Table 8, underscore the critical areas of focus necessary to enhance the operational capabilities and effectiveness of military forces in alignment with these strategic objectives.

Table 8.
List of Characteristics to be Developed Technological Characteristics of the Vehicles.

Technology

Recomendations

Adaptive and Cooperative Autonomy

Improvements in the autonomous capabilities of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles are crucial to their future development. Of particular importance is the ability of these systems to adapt intelligently to changes in their tactical situations. As the missions of these vehicles evolve, the tactical situation of specific missions will inevitably change, and their onboard sensing systems will indicate such changes. The onboard systems must be able to recognize the changes and adapt the mission plan accordingly, without the need for operator intervention. Similarly, there is a growing need for onboard autonomy to facilitate the employment of multiple uncrewed and human-crewed cooperative vehicles.

Energy storage for unmanned underwater vehicles

The range and endurance of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles are directly dependent on their onboard energy storage capabilities. It is incumbent upon the Navy to be aware of all commercial developments in energy storage technologies and, in addition, to selectively fund the development of energy storage technologies that are particularly applicable to the needs of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles.

Launch and recovery

These vehicles will only find their way into operations if safe and effective systems for the launch and recovery of Autonomous Vehicles; these circular; there is a significant need for launch and recovery systems for Autonomous Vehicles while the mother ship is underway. Similarly, the launch and recovery of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles, both on and below the surface, are becoming increasingly important.

Sensor for mine search

Mine hunting is the most essential current mission for both Autonomous Underwater Vehicles. An important technological need is a sensor system enabling onboard recognition and mining classification. In this context, further development of synthetic aperture sonar technology is an associated need.

Underwater communications

Increased autonomous capabilities will alleviate the need for high bandwidth underwater communications for command and control of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles. However, further development of underwater communication methods for transmitting sensed information and other needs is paramount.
Source: [2].

In conclusion, science, technology, and innovation are foundational to developing autonomous vehicles and facilitating their inception, enhancement, and proliferation. The application of these disciplines has led to the development of artificial intelligence systems, advanced sensors, and sophisticated software, enabling autonomous vehicles to make decisions and execute tasks independently of human intervention. It is imperative to persist in exploring and advancing these fields to further refine and broaden the scope of autonomous vehicle technology in the future.

III. Methodology

The methodology for researching the integration of autonomous vehicles into naval operations as a novel capability and support mechanism involves several key steps:

  1. Identification of Roles and Missions: This initial step will define the primary roles and missions the National Navy must undertake to safeguard the nation’s interests and address threats within the naval domain.
  2. Capabilities Analysis: This step involves identifying the capabilities necessary to fulfill the previously determined roles and missions, focusing on those that could be enhanced or expanded by adopting autonomous vehicles. This analysis encompasses several dimensions.
    • Technical Capability: Assessing the autonomous vehicles’ ability to execute assigned tasks, including navigation, situational awareness, analytical capabilities, and communication with other systems and Navy personnel. The adaptability of these vehicles to various weather and environmental conditions will also be evaluated.
    • Economic Capability: Analyzing the financial aspects of utilizing autonomous vehicles, covering acquisition, operation, and maintenance costs, as well as the expenses related to training Navy personnel to operate and maintain these vehicles.
    • Operational Capability: Evaluating how autonomous vehicles can fulfill specific Navy missions and roles, their potential to augment existing capabilities, and their impact on enhancing safety and reducing risks for Navy personnel.
    • Logistical Capability: Examining the vehicles’ capacity to transport necessary mission supplies and equipment and the support and maintenance systems’ efficiency in keeping the vehicles operational.
  3. Identification of Technologies and Systems: This step involves analyzing the current market for technologies and systems that could be employed to develop autonomous vehicles, aiming to bolster the institutional capabilities of the Colombian Navy.

IV. Results

A. Role identification

The Colombian Navy is pivotal in safeguarding the nation’s interests at sea and along coastal areas. In this context, incorporating autonomous vehicles as a novel capability and support mechanism for naval operations can significantly bolster their effectiveness across various roles and missions, including:

The integration of autonomous vehicles into naval operations introduces a transformative capability, enhancing operational efficiency and security in the execution of the Navy’s critical roles and missions, thereby fortifying the protection of national interests.

B. Capabilities analysis

Firstly, the capability of autonomous vehicles to fulfill assigned tasks hinges significantly on their navigation, situation perception and analysis, and communication with other Navy systems and personnel. These fundamental capabilities are crucial for their operational effectiveness:

In summary, autonomous vehicles demonstrate exceptional technical capabilities for assigned tasks, underscored by advanced navigation, situational awareness, and robust communication frameworks. Continuous evaluation and system upgrades are vital to maintain operational effectiveness and safety, especially as technology advances.

Secondly, adopting autonomous vehicles represents a considerable investment for the Navy. The upfront acquisition costs are typically higher than those of traditional human-crewed vehicles, attributed to the sophisticated technology embedded within them. Additionally, operation and maintenance expenses may increase, necessitated by specialized training for personnel. However, it is crucial to recognize the potential for long-term savings and operational efficiencies. Autonomous vehicles do not require crewing, can execute tasks with higher precision and efficiency than manned counterparts, and significantly mitigate risks to personnel in dangerous environments. In conclusion, despite the substantial initial outlay, autonomous vehicles offer compelling long-term advantages in efficiency and safety. Conducting a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis is essential before deciding on their acquisition and integration into naval operations, ensuring that the benefits justify the investment. The type and estimated costs associated with autonomous naval capabilities, as detailed in Table 9, should be a key component of this analysis, providing critical data to inform the decision-making process.

Table 9.
Type and estimated cost related to autonomous naval capabilities.

Type of Cost

Estimated Cost

Acquisition cost

High

Operating cost

Medium/High

Maintenance cost

Medium/High

Training cost

High

Training cost

Medium/High
Source: Autonomous Naval Capabilities.

Third, the operational capability of autonomous vehicles to fulfill specific Navy roles and missions is crucial for assessing their potential as a new capability and support for naval operations. Autonomous vehicles can complement and enhance existing Navy capabilities by providing greater effectiveness and efficiency in performing specific missions and tasks. For instance, autonomous vehicles can bolster surveillance and monitoring capabilities, enhance threat detection, and perform reconnaissance and surveillance tasks in remote or hazardous areas, safeguarding Navy personnel. Furthermore, autonomous vehicles offer greater flexibility in planning and executing operations, as they can be programmed to execute specific tasks autonomously, eliminating the need for onboard human crews. This adaptability allows the Navy to respond swiftly to changing scenarios and execute missions effectively.

Fourth, the logistics capability of autonomous vehicles can be assessed from various perspectives, including their payload capacity, autonomy, durability, and maintainability. Regarding payload capacity, autonomous vehicles can be designed and manufactured to transport a wide range of cargo, from basic supplies to more extensive equipment and vehicles. The absence of a human driver maximizes cargo space, enabling the transport of additional supplies or equipment. The autonomy of autonomous vehicles, critical for their logistical capability, hinges on factors such as battery life and rechargeability. Innovations in fast charging technologies and renewable energy systems, like solar power, can substantially extend the operational autonomy of these vehicles. The durability of autonomous vehicles is paramount, especially in combat or hazardous environments, requiring designs that can withstand rough terrain, extreme weather, and potential enemy engagements. Maintenance is another vital aspect, as autonomous vehicles’ advanced technology and complex software necessitate skilled technical specialists for their upkeep. The availability and accessibility of spare parts and replacement components are also essential considerations. In summary, the logistical capability of autonomous vehicles can be evaluated from multiple dimensions, including payload capacity, autonomy, durability, and maintenance. Despite the technical and logistical challenges associated with their deployment, autonomous vehicles hold the potential to enhance efficiency and safety in military logistics significantly.

C. Technologies and Systems Identification

Various technologies and systems are available that could be leveraged to develop autonomous vehicles. Some of these technologies include:

In conclusion, the same technologies that underpin autonomous driving on land can be adapted to develop autonomous maritime vehicles for the Colombian Navy. Sensor systems could be employed for ship detection, while data processing systems would analyze such information to inform decision-making. Navigation systems would ensure efficient route planning and collision avoidance, and communication systems could enhance coordination between Navy ships and other maritime traffic. Overall, the application of autonomous driving technologies could significantly enhance the capabilities of the Colombian Navy in sea and coastal surveillance operations.

V. Discussion

Adopting autonomous vehicles as a new capability and support mechanism for naval operations offers significant advantages, including enhanced efficiency, reduced operational costs, and improved safety. To effectively deploy this technology, a comprehensive implementation plan is crucial. This plan should encompass an assessment of needs and objectives, selection of suitable technology, infrastructure development, personnel selection and training, testing and validation, integration into existing naval operations, and ongoing monitoring and improvement. A meticulously devised implementation strategy ensures that autonomous vehicles fulfill operational demands and achieve predefined objectives, all while upholding stringent safety standards and optimizing performance. By successfully executing this plan, the Colombian Navy can capitalize on the benefits of autonomous vehicles, bolstering its capacity for conducting efficient and effective naval operations. This document outlines a detailed implementation strategy for integrating autonomous vehicles as a novel capability and support system for naval operations.

The field of integrating autonomous vehicles into naval operations is rapidly advancing, with numerous developments and experiments currently in progress. Presently, efforts are focused on creating autonomous underwater vehicles, maritime drones, and autonomous ships. These innovative vehicles are designed to undertake various missions, including reconnaissance and surveillance of coastal areas, detection of underwater mines, delivery of supplies, and search and rescue operations. Moreover, their capability to operate in hazardous conditions and adverse weather enhances personnel safety and the overall efficiency of naval missions.

However, the transition towards autonomous naval operations has its challenges. Key among these is the imperative to advance technologies further to ensure autonomous vehicles’ safety and reliability. Additionally, there is a crucial need to develop new strategic frameworks and doctrines to maximize the benefits of these cutting-edge capabilities. Addressing these challenges is essential for fully leveraging the potential of autonomous vehicles in enhancing naval operations.

Adopting autonomous vehicles enhances naval roles and capabilities, enabling a broad spectrum of tasks from coastal surveillance to executing rescue and salvage missions in inaccessible areas. However, the successful deployment of these vehicles necessitates a comprehensive evaluation encompassing technology assessment, cost analysis for implementation and maintenance, personnel training, clear articulation of project goals and requirements, identification of potential application domains, and formulation of an elaborate implementation strategy. Autonomous vehicles stand as a pivotal asset, offering efficiency, safety, and emergency responsiveness improvements. The global trend towards integrating autonomous vehicles into naval operations reflects their potential to deliver substantial efficiency and safety benefits, prompting considerable interest from armed forces and security agencies worldwide. It is crucial to consider the potential risks and challenges associated with this technology, particularly in cybersecurity and vehicle reliability, to ensure a smooth transition to autonomous capabilities.

Furthermore, the impact of autonomous vehicles on human employment is an essential consideration. As the deployment of these vehicles expands, there may be a reduction in the need for personnel to perform specific tasks, necessitating thoughtful management of automation’s effects on employment and career progression. The successful implementation of autonomous vehicles in naval operations requires careful planning and consideration of various factors, including technological viability, cost, personnel training, and the development of a detailed plan to ensure these vehicles can perform a wide array of tasks, from coastal monitoring to complex rescue and salvage operations in challenging environments.

VI. Conclusions

After a thorough evaluation of the roles, costs, technology, capabilities, and limitations associated with integrating autonomous vehicles as a new capability and support mechanism for naval operations, the following conclusions were reached:

In essence, while autonomous vehicles promise to enhance naval operations significantly, carefully considering their implications, strategic planning, and risk management are essential to realize their full potential and ensure effective deployment.

The integration of autonomous vehicles as a new capability and support for naval operations represents a promising area of research and development that can significantly improve the Colombian Navy’s effectiveness in fulfilling its military, diplomatic, and policing roles. However, significant challenges must still be overcome before these autonomous vehicles become integral to naval operations.

Potential applications for future research into autonomous vehicles as a new capability and support for naval operations are diverse and may include:

These are just some of the potential applications of autonomous vehicles in the context of naval operations. As technology develops, new possibilities and research opportunities are expected to emerge.

The research article has yielded several significant findings. Firstly, autonomous vehicles have the potential to significantly transform naval operations by enabling greater efficiency and flexibility in resource deployment. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that autonomous vehicles can enhance the safety of naval operations by eliminating the need for human crews in dangerous situations.

The study has also identified some challenges and limitations associated with using autonomous vehicles in naval operations. These include the need to develop highly sophisticated communication and control systems to ensure the coordination and safety of operations and address cybersecurity concerns. Overall, the article concludes that autonomous vehicles represent a promising new capability and support for naval operations but that a careful and well-planned approach is required for effective implementation. Further research and testing are needed to fully assess the potential of autonomous vehicles in this area and ensure their safe and efficient integration into naval operations.

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Gustavo A. Guerra La Rotta. Armada Nacional. Escuela Naval de Cadetes Almirante Padilla (Cartagena, Colombia). https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6620-4511

Katheryn Leonor López Urrea. Armada Nacional. Escuela Naval de Cadetes Almirante Padilla (Cartagena, Colombia). https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2068-5031

Juan Camilo Meza Acevedo. Armada Nacional. Escuela Naval de Cadetes Almirante Padilla (Cartagena, Colombia). https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1050-8357

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