Received: 10 November 2020 / Revised: 13 November 2020/ Accepted: 28 November 2020 /Published online: 7 December 2020

DOI:

Review

Neuropsychological evaluations associated with workplace accidents: a systematic review

DOI: https://doi.org/10.17981/JACN.1.1.2020.01

Carlos Antonio Vargas-María1

1 Universidad Libre. Barranquilla (Colombia)

Abstract

Most occupational accidents are evidenced by a loss of worker control over the procedures they carry out. Objective: To establish the neuropsychological tests used to assess the cognitive profile of workers as a measure to prevent workplace accidents. Method: An advanced and manual systematic search of databases (PubMed / MedLine, Web of Science, Scopus, Science Direct, Cochrane Library) was performed to evaluate the neuropsychological tests used in work settings. Results: The systematic review yielded 1777 articles, of which 150 were pre-selected according to what was reported in the abstract and 57 validated for complete reading. 21 articles were used for the narrative synthesis with a sample of two thousand eight hundred and fifty-four (2,854) subjects; and a range of 18 to 60 years. Conclusion: The limited number of investigations that establish the neuropsychological profiles associated with occupational accidents are evident.

Keywords: Systematic Review; Neuropsychological Evaluation; Occupational Accident; Cognitive processes

Evaluaciones neuropsicológicas asociadas con accidentes en el lugar de trabajo: una revisión sistemática

Resumen

Los accidentes laborales en su gran mayoría se evidencian por una pérdida del control del trabajador sobre los procedimientos que desarrolla. Objetivo: Establecer las pruebas neuropsicológicas utilizadas para evaluar el perfil cognitivo de los trabajadores como medida de prevención de la accidentalidad laboral. Método: Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática avanzada y manual en bases de datos (PubMed/ MedLine, Web of Science, Scopus, Science Direct, Cochrane Library) para evaluar las pruebas neuropsicológicas utilizadas en ambientes laborales. Resultados: La revisión sistemática arrojó 1777 artículos, de los cuales 150 fueron pre-seleccionados de acuerdo a lo reportado en el resumen y 57 validados para su lectura completa. Se utilizaron 21 artículos para la síntesis narrativa con una muestra de dos mil ochocientos cincuenta y cuatro (2.854) sujetos; y un rango de 18 a 60 años. Conclusión: Sevidencian el limitado número de investigaciones que relacionan el establecimiento de perfiles neuropsicológicos asociados a la accidentalidad laboral.

Palabras clave: Revisión Sistemática; Evaluación Neuro­psicológica; Accidentalidad laboral; Procesos cognitivos

Correspondence:

Carlos Vargas-Maria

Universidad Libre. Barranquilla (Colombia)

Introduction

Occupational accidents are defined as a series of bodily or tissue damage, which can trigger the decrease or loss of either total or partial functions in any part of the body (Niza, Silva & Lima, 2018). In Colombia it is defined as “Sudden event that occurs due to or on the occasion of work, and that produces in the worker an organic injury, a functional or psychiatric disorder, disability or death” (Law 1562, 2012, art. 3); these accidents are characterized mainly due to the production of human suffering and economic losses at different levels of society (Nag & Patel, 1998).

There are different approaches to workplace accidents that allow us to explain their nature. The first is organizational; this approach refers to the process of social construction of risk, where resources, labor and work overload are taken into account (Clarke & Short, 1993). The second approach is the theory of human error, where the worker loses control over procedures due to insufficient training, stress, or fatigue (Jackson, 1995).

Occupational accidents can be attributed to immediate or basic causes, the immediate ones are generated directly, that is, by unsafe acts or inappropriate behaviors of workers in relation to the unsafe conditions of the facilities, infrastructure, equipment and tools that put at risk security (González, Bonilla, Reyes & Chavarro, 2016). On the other hand, the basic causes give rise to the immediate ones and are made up of personal and work factors, which, in control, could be factors that reduce the impact of the immediate causes (Chinchilla, 2002). Personal factors play a fundamental role in the motivation, suitability, and knowledge of safety standards by the worker (Huamán, 2017). Work-related causes refer to training workers in the use of machines and materials that comply with occupational health standards, optimal structural conditions with the legal extension of working hours and the establishment of organizational systems that can demonstrate the commitment of companies with the safety of their employees (Ortega, 2017).

Data provided by the International Labor Organization (ILO, 2019) suggest that workplace accidents cause around 380,000 deaths per year and 374,000,000 non-fatal accidents or injuries in the world. In Colombia, the Ministry of Labor (Min­trabajo, 2018) ensures that occupational accidents correspond on average to 7.2% of the population affiliated with the general occupational risk system, for that same year there were 483,560 non-fatal accidents or injuries in the workplace and 410 deaths. According to the previously reported figures, it is important to take into account that occupational accidents increase significantly according to the nature of the work, especially those that are called high risk. The Ministry of Social Protection of Colombia (Ley 2090, 2003) defines the High-risk work activities such as those in which the work or the place where they are performed represents a decrease in healthy life expectancy and a greater exposure or intensity compared to other work activities. Among those considered high-risk jobs are mining or those that involve performance in tunnels or underground, exposure to high temperatures, ionizing radiation, proven carcinogenic chemicals and in units of military forces, civil aeronautics, or similar entities.

Occupational accidents have different implications in relation to the parties, Feng, Zhang and Wu (2015) establish the subject, the family, society and companies as the focus of involvement. The social implications refer to the deployment of the necessary resources to attend to the accident through legal and health channels. For their part, companies go through financial losses, the temporary or permanent absence of the worker and the intangible costs of accidents (Ascuénaga, 2006). Family implications are non-material losses, in case of non-fatal accidents resulting in disability. The family must adapt to the new situation and take care of the worker who has suffered the accident, assumed by an external health assistant or internally by a family member (Navarrete & Zicavo, 2007). Overload in responsibilities and delicacy in care tasks can trigger burnout syndrome in the caregiver, manifesting symptoms associated with stress and anxiety (Caraguay, 2018).

Cognitive functions facilitate adaptation to the worker or subject to the environment and allow them to develop an active role (Dorado, 2012). These functions are linked to the level of performance, and a failure in any of them can be a predictor of an occupational accident, these failures are usually registered as human error, one of the main approaches in occupational accidents (Wadsworth, Simpson, Moss & Smith, 2003). Knowledge of this relationship seeks to promote health in the workplace as the main method of preventing this type of error. Behavior-based safety programs are currently being used which seek to reinforce safe behaviors in individuals so that they are maintained over time (Meliá, 2007). Neuropsychological evaluation is the tool that allows establishing an accurate diagnosis of the state of cognitive functions, establishing the necessary limits to objectify the neuropsychological profiles of the pathologies that may have been triggers of occupational accidents (Mauri, Paletta, Colasanti, Miserocchi y Altamura, 2014).

Based on these positions, neuroscience has sought to improve the training of workers in behavior-based safety since the 1990s. One of the most recognized is the “SafeStart” project created by Larry Wilson, which seeks to avoid Work accidents focusing on the control that the worker may have over the relationship of the environment and their own body, this project establishes four causes of most work accidents: fatigue, haste, frustration and complacency, these alter attention and can generate loss of balance, traction or grip and leave the worker on the line of fire (Ciaffoni, 2019).

On the other hand, the National Institute of Health and Safety at Work (INSST, 2018) offers companies the prevention program FPSICO 4.0 that allows identifying the working conditions that present a psychosocial risk for workers, this method evaluates the time work, autonomy, work capacity, psychological demands, variety of work, supervision, interest, performance, and social support relationships. In the evaluation of psychological demands, this method assesses the cognitive demands, related to decision-making, memory, attention, and knowledge management required by the work being done; and the emotional demands that are produced by the work environment, work climate and the capacity for emotional control that a specific job requires (Aguilar-Soria, 2014).

Considering the importance of reducing the indicators of accidents at work and establishing the cognitive profiles that could increase these figures. The present review aims to establish the neuropsychological profiles associated with occupational accidents.

Methodology

Search strategy for the systematic review

A database of original articles was developed, based on systematic searches of electronic sources. The following databases were searched: PubMed / MedLine, Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, Science Direct, and Cochrane Library. All studies published from 2009 to 2020 that assess the relationship between cognitive processes and occupational accidents were identified.

The search was limited to literature in English and Spanish, no other languages were included. With the use of Boolean intercession operators (“AND” and “Y”). A cross search was carried out with the following strings: 1) Work accident (Industrial accidents OR work accident); 2) Cognitive processes evaluated (Cognitive processes OR Attention OR Memory OR Cognitive Assessment).

Criteria for Inclusion and Selection of Articles

To be included in the review, the studies had to meet the following criteria:

  1. Participants: Adult between 18-60 years old, and who did not present any neurocognitive, psychiatric or psychoactive substance abuse disorder.
  2. Labor relationship: Formal.
  3. Method: Use instruments for neuropsychological measurement of cognitive processes.
  4. Results: Descriptive, correlational, or predictive analysis.
  5. Type of study: research articles (quasi-experimental or experimental methods), excluding review articles, theoretical or single case studies and meta-analyzes.

Qualitative Synthesis

From the included studies, the results indicate the tests used to evaluate cognitive profiles associated with occupational accidents, as well as the cognitive functions that are frequently evaluated. The PRISMA statement17 (Figure 1) was followed to inform the items of this systematic review.

Figure 1. Prism Flow Diagram.

Source: Authors.

Results

The findings of this review show the limited number of investigations that relate the establishment of neuropsychological profiles associated with occupational accidents. A separation of cognitive functions is seen in the different investigations, few establish a comprehensive profile as the object of study, some functions were evaluated in multiple investigations such as attention and memory, and others were evaluated in a lesser proportion such as cognitive flexibility and processing speed. It is important to point out that this review seeks to gather the greatest evidence that reflects the state of research and knowledge gaps in the study of the performance of cognitive functions in occupational accidents, since accidents in the workplace affect many spheres of work-business and personal life, implying a high financial and social cost.

In the assessment of cognitive functions in the workplace, no specific neuropsychological batteries were found to be used consistently and uniformly for this purpose. On the other hand, tests and scales were found that are used to measure cognitive functions in different work environments such as aviation (Asmayawati & Nixon, 2020), military activities (Frings, 2011; Irgens-Hansen et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2019, Bell, Virden, Lewis & Cassidy, 2015), conduction (Horrey, Lesch & Garabet, 2009; Cheng, Ting, Liu & Ba, 2015; De Oliveira et al., 2020; Chen, Chou, Su & Wen, 2019, Di Nocera et al., 2018, Adrian, Postal, Moessinger, Rascle & Charles, 2011; Elfering, Grebner & Haller, 2012), construction (Brossoit et al., 2019), service sector (Roll, Siu, Li & De Witte, 2019; Elfering, Grebner & De Tribolet-Hardy, 2013), industrial operators and services (Kodappully, Srinivasan & Srinivasan, 2016; Muller et al., 2012) and other activities (Buodo, Patron, Benvenuti & Palomba, 2018; Askaripoor et al., 2019; Petitta, Probst, Ghezzi & Barbaranelli, 2019; Huang, Menozzi & Favey, 2019).

One of the most widely used scales is the Cognitive Failure Scale in the Workplace (WCFS) developed by Wallace and Chen (2005) that was used by different investigations (Petitta et al., 2019; Elfering et al., 2012; Elfering et al., 2013) this questionnaire assesses memory, attention, inhibition and praxis. On the other hand, Di Nocera, Ferlazzo and D´Olimpio (2014) propose a questionnaire of cognitive errors based on attention, which was used by Di Nocera et al. (2018). In this same line of cognitive questionnaires Wadsworth et al. (2005) report the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire.

However, the aforementioned investigations use short scales and even ecological assessments. On the other hand, some authors report the use of neuropsychological tests (Horrey et al., 2009; Adrian et al., 2011; Muller et al., 2012; Cheng et al., 2015; Irgens-Hansen et al., 2015; Buodo et al., 2018; Askaripoor et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2019; De Oliveira et al., 2020).

Literature search

The systematic cross-search of the two chains showed 1777 articles, of which 150 were pre-selected according to what was reported in the abstract and 57 validated for their complete reading (Figure 1). Among the articles included there are 10 experimental articles with descriptive analysis, 4 experimental with analysis of correlational scope, 4 quasi-experimental with correlational analysis, 2 experimental with linear regression analysis, 1 quasi-experimental article with analysis of descriptive scope.

Characteristics of the included articles

In the systematic review, 21 articles were used with a sample of two thousand eight hundred fifty-four (2,854) subjects; and a range of 18 to 60 years, this range was different for each article, the most frequent ages of the subjects ranged between 31 and 50 years. As evidenced in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Age distribution.

Source: Authors.

A quantitative and qualitative synthesis of the 21 articles included was developed and descriptive variables were analyzed. Since no unified data were found on the performances in the subtests of the neuropsychological tests used in each investigation. It should be noted that more than 50% of the articles included are from 2018 onwards. On the other hand, an important participation of the USA, the United Kingdom and Switzerland is observed in the work of the variables analyzed.

Figure 3. Distribution of articles by publication date.

Source: Authors.

According to what was found, this set of neuropsychological tests, questionnaires, and scales to evaluate cognitive functions in correlation with occupational accident rates is evidenced (Table 1).

Table 1.

Reported instruments

Authors

Year

Measuring instrument

Evaluated functions

Buodo, Patron, Benvenuti and Palomba.

2018

Trail Making Test (TMT; Reitan, 1958; Italian adaptation by Giovagnoli et al., 1996).

Executive functions.

Test d2 (Brickencamp & Zillmer, 1998).

Attention.

Visual perceptual skills.

Asmayawati and Nixon.

2020

Critical Decision Method Interview (MDL) (Klein, Calderwood & MacGregor, 1989).

Decision making.

Frings.

2011

Troubleshooting test (8 items extracted from Luchins & Luchins, 1969).

Problem solving

Decision making.

Cognitive flexibility.

Cheng, Ting, Liu and Ba.

2015

EGG-IGT (Simulated decision making).

Impulsiveness and Decision Making.

De Oliveira, Barroso, Leopoldo, Gouvea, Castaldelli-Maia and Leyton.

2020

The sustained attention test (TACOM-B) (Tonglet, 2007).

Sustained attention.

The Trace Color Test (CTT) comprises two forms (CTT1 and CTT2) (Santana et al., 2010).

Interference, divided attention.

Test D2 (Brickenkamp, Zillmer & Balcar, 2000).

Sustained attention.

Stroop (Stroop, 1931).

Interference, divided attention.

Chen, Chou, Su and Wen.

2019

Attention-Related Driving Error Scale (ARDES) (Nucciarone, Poó, Tosi & Montes, 2012).

Attention.

Brossoit, Crain, Leslie, Hammer,Truxillo and Bodner.

2019

Workplace Cognitive Failure Scale (WCFS) (Broadbent et al., 1982).

Memory and Attention.

Huang, Menozzi and Favey.

2019

Test for screening visual skills (Huang et al., 2019).

Attention.

Roll, Siu, Li and De Witte.

2019

Attention scale related to cognitive error (Cheyne, Carriere & Smilek, 2006).

Attention.

Smith, Cooper, Merullo, Cohen, Heaton, Claro and Smith.

2019

task GO/NO GO (GNG), Automated NeuropsychologicalAssessment Metrics (ANAM4, version 4).

Sustained attention and Inhibición.

Visual task-backtrack, Automated NeuropsychologicalAssessment (ANAM4, version 4).

Attention.

Visual task adjustment - backtrack adapted measure of attention and working memory (Angelet, 2015).

Working memory.

Petitta, Probst, Ghezzi and Barbaranelli.

2019

Cognitive Failure Scale in the Workplace (CFQ) (Wallace & Chen, 2005).

Memory and Attention.

Askaripoor, Motamedzade, Golmohammadi, Farhadian, Babamiri and Samavati.

2019

Three-minute visual task GO/NO GO.

Divided attention.

Di Nocera, Ricciardi, Longo, Mastrangelo, Cutini and Bisaglia.

2018

Workplace Cognitive Failure Scale (WCFS) (Broadbent et al., 1982).

Attention.

Kodappully, Srinivasan and Srinivasan.

2016

Eye tracking applications.

Attention, Inhibition and working memory.

Irgens-Hansen, Gundersen, Sunde, Baste, Harris, Bråtveit and Moen.

2015

Posner Reference Signal Paradigm in E-prime (version 2.0).

Response time, precision, and inhibition.

Bell, Virden, Lewis and Cassidy.

2015

Computerized Psychomotor Surveillance Test (PVT; Dinges, Mallis, Maislin & Powell, 1985).

Reaction time and attention.

STROOP Word-Color (Golden & Freshwater, 2002).

Cognitive performance.

Elfering, Grebner and De Tribolet-Hardy.

2013

Workplace Cognitive Failure Scale (WCFS) (Broadbent et al., 1982).

Memory and Attention.

Elfering, Grebner and Haller.

2012

Workplace Cognitive Failure Scale (WCFS) (Broadbent et al., 1982).

Memory and Attention.

Muller, Gunstad, Alosco, Miller, Updegraff, Spitznagel and Glickman.

2012

Integneuro computerized test battery TM (DuBois, Harb & Fox, 1990, Paúl, 2005): Digit Span, Choice Reaction Time, Verbal Interference and Executive Maze Task.

Memory and Attention.

Executive functions.

Reaction time.

Spatial memory.

Verbal interference: Inhibition of responses.

Adrian, Postal, Moessinger, Rascle and Charles.

2011

Stroop (Stroop, 1931).

Inhibition.

Incompatibility test (Zimmermannand & Fimm, 1994).

Visual attention.

The go / no-go test (Zimmermann & Fimm, 1994).

Inhibition.

Task plus-minus (Jersild, 1927).

Shifting.

Flexibility test (Zimmermann & Fimm, 1994).

Cognitive flexibility.

Letters and Numbers Task (Rogers & Monsell, 1995).

Working memory.

Trail Making Test A y B (Reitan, 1958).

Sustained attention and Inhibition.

Letter memory task (Morris & Jones, 1990).

Working memory.

Operation interval task (Turner & Engle, 1989).

Working memory.

Sequence of numbers and letters (Wechsler, 2000).

Working memory.

Bourdon-Wiersma test (Grewel, 1953).

Attention.

WAIS III Encoding Subtest (Wechsler, 2000).

coding.

Block design (Wechsler, 2000).

Viso-special and viso-constructive skills.

Search for symbols (Wechsler, 2000).

Processing speed.

Horrey,Lesch and Garabet.

2009

Paced auditory serial addition task (PASAT) (Brookhuis, De Vries & De Waard, 1991; Patten, Kircher, Östlund & Nilsson, 2004).

Working memory and Attention.

Guessing Task, Based on the Twenty Questions Quiz (TQT; Bruner, Olver, Greenfield & Rigney, 1966, Kafer & Hunter, 1997).

Decision making.

Source: Authors.

Discussion

This review includes 21 articles, which report one or more cognitive functions evaluated by different types of questionnaires or neuropsychological tests. The findings of this review show the limited number of investigations that relate the establishment of neuropsychological profiles associated with occupational accidents. Unified evaluations are evidenced and few establish a comprehensive profile as an object of study, some cognitive functions most evaluated in reported investigations were attention and memory (Buodo et al., 2018; Asmayawati & Nixon, 2020; Chen et al., 2019; Brossoit et al., 2019; Roll et al., 2019; Petitta et al., 2019; Askaripoor et al., 2019; Di Nocera et al., 2018; Kodappully et al., 2016; Irgens et al., 2015; Bell et al., 2015; Elfering et al., 2012; 2013; Muller et al., 2012; Horrey et al., 2009) were evaluated to a lesser extent as cognitive flexibility and processing speed (Frings, 2011; Bell et al., 2015; Muller et al., 2012; Adrian et al., 2011). It is important to point out that this review seeks to gather the greatest evidence that reflects the state of research and knowledge gaps in the study of the performance of cognitive functions in occupational accidents, since accidents in the workplace affect many spheres of work-business and personal life, implying a high financial and social cost (Feng et al., 2015).

In the evaluation of cognitive functions in the workplace, no neuropsychological batteries established specifically for this purpose were found, the tests and scales used to measure specific functions are diverse and there is no established relationship with a neuropsychological battery that can cover comprehensively the set of cognitive functions. One of the most widely used scales is the Cognitive Failure in the Workplace Scale (CFQ) (Broadbent, Cooper, FitzGerald & Parkes, 1982) which, in accordance with the above, assesses memory, attention, inhibition, and praxis, the first two being the most studied.

Despite the limited number of investigations, it has been shown that many of the work accidents are due to cognitive failures and that these can arise in the operationalization of the work environment (Almirall, 2001). The evidence presented may be useful for researchers and developers of strategies and / or training on safety and health at work to comprehensively evaluate cognitive functions and the direct implications that these have on worker behavior (Díaz-Cabrera et al., 2008).

The limitations in this study respond to the scarce scientific production on the incidence of the functioning of cognitive functions in occupational accidents, a limited number of databases were accessed for the collection of information and few studies were found with an approach / approach comprehensive of cognitive functions. Likewise, the articles included worked with small samples and their results are not conclusive enough to be extrapolated and faithfully represent the reality of the phenomena. Half of the articles included have a descriptive scope, meaning a low level of evidence. However, these information gaps represent an opportunity for new research, with cognitive functions being a crucial variable in worker performance and in the design of studies or projects aimed at increasing safety in the workplace and thus reducing accidents.

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Carlos Antonio Vargas María: Physician, aspiring PhD in applied cognitive neuroscience; Master in Psychoneurpschiatry and rehabilitation, Specialist in occupational medicine, member of the GIINCO group, research line: Neuroscience and health (University de la Costa, Colombia).